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Published
August 19, 2020
Copyright (c) 2020 International Journal of Allied Medical Sciences and Clinical Research
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Dual Task Performance and Executive Function in Physically Under Active and Physically Active Elderly: a Comparison
Corresponding Author(s) : Priyanka. Parate
priyanka16parate@gmail.com
International Journal of Allied Medical Sciences and Clinical Research,
Vol. 8 No. 3 (2020): 2020 Volume - 8 Issue-3
Abstract
Background
Effect of being physically active on motor and cognitive function is well known. Indirect effect of being physically active on dual tasking needs to be explored.
Aim & Objectives
To compare dual tasking and executive function in physically active and underactive elderly.
Method
124 Elderly were divided in to physically active and non-active using Rapid Assessment of Physical Activity (RAPA) scale and assessed for their Dual tasking skills using TUG-Cog, TUG-motor. Data was analyzed using unpaired t test.
Result
Physically active elderly performed significantly better than underactive elderly on Tug cog ,manual in both groups (p<0.001)
Conclusion
Physically active elderly have better dual tasking skills than their physically underactive counterparts.
Keywords
Dual tasking
Elderly
Physical activity
1.
Atiya. Shaikh, Priyanka. Parate. Dual Task Performance and Executive Function in Physically Under Active and Physically Active Elderly: a Comparison. Int. J. of Allied Med. Sci. and Clin. Res. [Internet]. 2020 Aug. 19 [cited 2026 Apr. 21];8(3):528-34. Available from: https://ijamscr.com/ijamscr/article/view/891
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References
-
[1]. Hausdorff JM, Schweiger A, and Herman T, Yogev- Seligmann G. Dual-task decrements in gait: contributing
factors among healthy older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 63(12), 2008, 1335-43.
[2]. Chang M, Jonsson P. V, Snaedal J. The effect of midlife physical activity on cognitive function among older
adults. Journals of Gerontology, 65(12), 2010, 1369–1374.
[3]. KramerA. F, Bherer L, Colcombe S. J, Dong W, and GreenoughW. T, Environmental influences on cognitive and
brain plasticity during aging. Journals of Gerontology, 59(9), 2004, 940–957.
[4]. Liu-Ambrose T, Nagamatsu L. S, Graf P, Beattie B. L, Ashe M. C, and Handy T. C. Resistance training and
executive functions: a 12-month randomized controlled trial,” Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 2010, 170–
178.
[5]. McAuley E, Rudolph D. Physical activity, aging, and psychological well-being.J Aging Phys Activity. 3, 1995,
67-96.
[6]. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a
preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res 17, 1983, 37-49.
[7]. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR.Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of
patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 12, 1975, 189-198.
[8]. Steffen TM, Hacker TA, Mollinger L. Age- and gender-related test performance in community-dwelling elderly
people: six-minute walk test, Berg balance scale, timed up & go test, and gait speeds. Phys Ther. 82(2), 2002,
128.
[9]. Hannon Peggy, Christensen Kitty. University of Washington Health Promotion Research Center, 2006.
[10]. Neva J Kirk-Sanchezand Ellen L McGough. Physical exercise and cognitive performance in the elderly: current
perspectives. Clin Interv Aging. 9, 2014, 51–62.
[11]. Wickens, Braune, Christopher D. Age differences in the speed and capacity of information processing: I. A dualtask
approach. Psychology and Aging, 2(1), 1987, 70-78.
[12]. Harber MP, Konopka AR, Douglass MD, Minchev K, Kaminsky LA, Trappe TA, Trappe S. Aerobic exercise
training improves whole muscle and single myofiber size and function in older women. Am J Physiol Regul Integr
Comp Physiol. 297(5), 2009, R1452–9.
[13]. Jamie S. McPhee, David P. French, Dean Jackson, James Nazroo, Neil Pendleton. Physical activity in older age:
perspectives for healthy ageing and frailty. Biogerontology. 17, 2016, 567–580.
[14]. Hamer M, Lavoie KL, Bacon SL. Taking up physical activity in later life and healthy ageing. British Journal of
Sports Medicine.10.1136/bjsports-2013-092993, 2013.
[15]. Sabia S, Singh-Manoux A, Hagger-Johnson G, Cambois E, Brunner EJ, Kivimaki M. Influence of individual and
combined healthy behaviours on successful aging. Can Med Assoc J. 184, 2012, 1985–1992.
[16]. Hillsdon MM, Brunner EJ, Guralnik JM, Marmot MG. Prospective study of physical activity and physical function
in early old age. Is J Prev Med. 28(3), 2005, 245-250.
[17]. Roh KH, Park HA. A meta-analysis of the effect of walking exercise on lower limb muscle endurance, whole
body endurance and upper body flexibility in elders. J Korean Acad Nurs. 43, 2013, 536–546.
[18]. Hamer M, Chida Y. Physical activity and risk of neurodegenerative disease: a systematic review of prospective
evidence. Psychol Med. 39(1), 2009, 3–11.
[19]. AlbinetC. T, Boucard G, Bouquet C. A, and Audiffren M. Increased heart rate variability and executive
performance after aerobic training in the elderly. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 109(4), 2010, 617–
624.
[20]. Kamijo K., Hayashi Y., Sakai T., Yahiro T., Tanaka K., Nishihira Y. Acute effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive
function in older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 64B, 2009, 356-363.
[21]. Mahoney J.R., Verghese J., Goldin Y., Lipton R., Holtzer R. Alerting, orienting, and executive attention in older
adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2010, 877-889.
[22]. Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves
memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, 3017–3022.
[23]. Sarah Khasawinah, Brian Caffo, Kirk I Erickson. The association between functional connectivity and cognition
in older adults. J Syst Integr Neurosci, 3(3), 2017, 1-10
[24]. Yamada M, Suzuki K, Kudo S, Totsuka M, Nakaji S, Sugawara K. Raised plasma G-CSF and IL-6 after exercise
may play a role in neutrophil mobilization into the circulation. J Appl Physiol, 92, 1985, 1789–1794.
[25]. Coen RF, Lawlor BA, Kenny R. Failure to demonstrate that memory improvement is due either to aerobic exercise
or increased hippocampal volume. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, E89.
[26]. Richter-Schmidinger T, Alexopoulos P, Horn M, et al. Influence of brain-derived neurotrophic-factor and
apolipoprotein E genetic variants on hippocampal volume and memory performance in healthy young adults. J
Neural Transm. 118, 2011, 249–257.
[27]. Matthew T. Schmolesky, David L. Webb, and Rodney A. Hansen. The Effects of Aerobic Exercise Intensity and
Duration on Levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Healthy Men. J Sports Sci Med. 12(3), 2013, 502–
511.
[28]. Emrah Duzel, Henriette Van Praag, and Michael Sendtner. Can physical exercise in old age improve memory and
hippocampal function?.Brain. 139(3), 2016, 662–673.
[29]. Al-Yahya E, Dawes H, Smith L. Cognitive motor interference while walking: a systematic review and metaanalysis.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 35(3), 2011, 715-28.
[30]. Sandra B. Chapman, Sina Aslan, Jeffrey S. Spence. Shorter term aerobic exercise improves brain, cognition, and
cardiovascular fitness in aging. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 75.
[31]. 137) Grodstein F. Cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive function. Alzheimers Dement. 3(2), 2007, S16–S22.
[32]. Waldstein SR. The relation of hypertension to cognitive function. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 12(1), 2003, 9–12.
[33]. Keith M. Diaz and Daichi Shimbo. Physical Activity and the Prevention of Hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep.
15(6), 2013, 659–668.
[34]. Burns JM, Cronk BB, Anderson HS, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and brain atrophy in early Alzheimer disease.
Neurology. 71(3), 2008, 210–216.
[35]. Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Voss MW, et al. Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly
humans. Hippocampus. 19(10), 2009, 1030–1039.
[36]. Etnier JL, Nowell PM, Landers DM, Sibley BA. A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic
fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Res Rev. 52, 2006, 119–30.
[37]. Hayes SM, Hayes JP, Cadden M, Verfaellie M. A review of cardiorespiratory fitness-related neuroplasticity in
the aging brain. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 31.
[38]. Voelcker-Rehage C, Niemann C. Structural and functional brain changes related to different types of physical
activity across the life span. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 37, 2013, 2268–95.
[39]. Bruce S. McEwen. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and
damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Eur J Pharmacol. 583(2-3), 2008, 174–185.
[40]. Michael Daly, David McMinn and Julia L. Allan. Relationship between physical activity and executive function
in older adults. Front Hum Neurosci. 8, 2014, 1044.
[41]. Ploughman M. Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Dev Neurorehabil.
11, 2008, 236–240
[42]. Heather A Henderson, Daniel S Pine, and Nathan A Fox. Behavioral Inhibition and Developmental Risk: A Dual-
Processing Perspective. Neuro psycho pharmacology. 40(1), 2015, 207–224.
[43]. Coppin AK, Shumway-Cook A, Saczynski JS, Association of executive function and performance of dual-task
physical tests among older adults: analyses from the In Chianti study. Age Ageing. 35, 2006, 619–624
[44]. Jennifer S. Brach, PhD, PT and Jessie M. VanSwearingen. Interventions to Improve Walking in Older Adults.
Curr Transl Geriatr Exp Gerontol Rep. 2(4), 2013, 10.1007/s13670-013-0059-0
[45]. Paolo Riccardo Brustio, Daniele Magistro, Massimiliano Zecca. Age-related decrements in dual-task
performance: Comparison of different mobility and cognitive tasks. A cross sectional study. PLoS One,
12(7), 2017, e0181698.
References
[1]. Hausdorff JM, Schweiger A, and Herman T, Yogev- Seligmann G. Dual-task decrements in gait: contributing
factors among healthy older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 63(12), 2008, 1335-43.
[2]. Chang M, Jonsson P. V, Snaedal J. The effect of midlife physical activity on cognitive function among older
adults. Journals of Gerontology, 65(12), 2010, 1369–1374.
[3]. KramerA. F, Bherer L, Colcombe S. J, Dong W, and GreenoughW. T, Environmental influences on cognitive and
brain plasticity during aging. Journals of Gerontology, 59(9), 2004, 940–957.
[4]. Liu-Ambrose T, Nagamatsu L. S, Graf P, Beattie B. L, Ashe M. C, and Handy T. C. Resistance training and
executive functions: a 12-month randomized controlled trial,” Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 2010, 170–
178.
[5]. McAuley E, Rudolph D. Physical activity, aging, and psychological well-being.J Aging Phys Activity. 3, 1995,
67-96.
[6]. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a
preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res 17, 1983, 37-49.
[7]. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR.Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of
patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 12, 1975, 189-198.
[8]. Steffen TM, Hacker TA, Mollinger L. Age- and gender-related test performance in community-dwelling elderly
people: six-minute walk test, Berg balance scale, timed up & go test, and gait speeds. Phys Ther. 82(2), 2002,
128.
[9]. Hannon Peggy, Christensen Kitty. University of Washington Health Promotion Research Center, 2006.
[10]. Neva J Kirk-Sanchezand Ellen L McGough. Physical exercise and cognitive performance in the elderly: current
perspectives. Clin Interv Aging. 9, 2014, 51–62.
[11]. Wickens, Braune, Christopher D. Age differences in the speed and capacity of information processing: I. A dualtask
approach. Psychology and Aging, 2(1), 1987, 70-78.
[12]. Harber MP, Konopka AR, Douglass MD, Minchev K, Kaminsky LA, Trappe TA, Trappe S. Aerobic exercise
training improves whole muscle and single myofiber size and function in older women. Am J Physiol Regul Integr
Comp Physiol. 297(5), 2009, R1452–9.
[13]. Jamie S. McPhee, David P. French, Dean Jackson, James Nazroo, Neil Pendleton. Physical activity in older age:
perspectives for healthy ageing and frailty. Biogerontology. 17, 2016, 567–580.
[14]. Hamer M, Lavoie KL, Bacon SL. Taking up physical activity in later life and healthy ageing. British Journal of
Sports Medicine.10.1136/bjsports-2013-092993, 2013.
[15]. Sabia S, Singh-Manoux A, Hagger-Johnson G, Cambois E, Brunner EJ, Kivimaki M. Influence of individual and
combined healthy behaviours on successful aging. Can Med Assoc J. 184, 2012, 1985–1992.
[16]. Hillsdon MM, Brunner EJ, Guralnik JM, Marmot MG. Prospective study of physical activity and physical function
in early old age. Is J Prev Med. 28(3), 2005, 245-250.
[17]. Roh KH, Park HA. A meta-analysis of the effect of walking exercise on lower limb muscle endurance, whole
body endurance and upper body flexibility in elders. J Korean Acad Nurs. 43, 2013, 536–546.
[18]. Hamer M, Chida Y. Physical activity and risk of neurodegenerative disease: a systematic review of prospective
evidence. Psychol Med. 39(1), 2009, 3–11.
[19]. AlbinetC. T, Boucard G, Bouquet C. A, and Audiffren M. Increased heart rate variability and executive
performance after aerobic training in the elderly. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 109(4), 2010, 617–
624.
[20]. Kamijo K., Hayashi Y., Sakai T., Yahiro T., Tanaka K., Nishihira Y. Acute effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive
function in older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 64B, 2009, 356-363.
[21]. Mahoney J.R., Verghese J., Goldin Y., Lipton R., Holtzer R. Alerting, orienting, and executive attention in older
adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2010, 877-889.
[22]. Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves
memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, 3017–3022.
[23]. Sarah Khasawinah, Brian Caffo, Kirk I Erickson. The association between functional connectivity and cognition
in older adults. J Syst Integr Neurosci, 3(3), 2017, 1-10
[24]. Yamada M, Suzuki K, Kudo S, Totsuka M, Nakaji S, Sugawara K. Raised plasma G-CSF and IL-6 after exercise
may play a role in neutrophil mobilization into the circulation. J Appl Physiol, 92, 1985, 1789–1794.
[25]. Coen RF, Lawlor BA, Kenny R. Failure to demonstrate that memory improvement is due either to aerobic exercise
or increased hippocampal volume. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, E89.
[26]. Richter-Schmidinger T, Alexopoulos P, Horn M, et al. Influence of brain-derived neurotrophic-factor and
apolipoprotein E genetic variants on hippocampal volume and memory performance in healthy young adults. J
Neural Transm. 118, 2011, 249–257.
[27]. Matthew T. Schmolesky, David L. Webb, and Rodney A. Hansen. The Effects of Aerobic Exercise Intensity and
Duration on Levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Healthy Men. J Sports Sci Med. 12(3), 2013, 502–
511.
[28]. Emrah Duzel, Henriette Van Praag, and Michael Sendtner. Can physical exercise in old age improve memory and
hippocampal function?.Brain. 139(3), 2016, 662–673.
[29]. Al-Yahya E, Dawes H, Smith L. Cognitive motor interference while walking: a systematic review and metaanalysis.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 35(3), 2011, 715-28.
[30]. Sandra B. Chapman, Sina Aslan, Jeffrey S. Spence. Shorter term aerobic exercise improves brain, cognition, and
cardiovascular fitness in aging. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 75.
[31]. 137) Grodstein F. Cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive function. Alzheimers Dement. 3(2), 2007, S16–S22.
[32]. Waldstein SR. The relation of hypertension to cognitive function. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 12(1), 2003, 9–12.
[33]. Keith M. Diaz and Daichi Shimbo. Physical Activity and the Prevention of Hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep.
15(6), 2013, 659–668.
[34]. Burns JM, Cronk BB, Anderson HS, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and brain atrophy in early Alzheimer disease.
Neurology. 71(3), 2008, 210–216.
[35]. Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Voss MW, et al. Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly
humans. Hippocampus. 19(10), 2009, 1030–1039.
[36]. Etnier JL, Nowell PM, Landers DM, Sibley BA. A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic
fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Res Rev. 52, 2006, 119–30.
[37]. Hayes SM, Hayes JP, Cadden M, Verfaellie M. A review of cardiorespiratory fitness-related neuroplasticity in
the aging brain. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 31.
[38]. Voelcker-Rehage C, Niemann C. Structural and functional brain changes related to different types of physical
activity across the life span. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 37, 2013, 2268–95.
[39]. Bruce S. McEwen. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and
damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Eur J Pharmacol. 583(2-3), 2008, 174–185.
[40]. Michael Daly, David McMinn and Julia L. Allan. Relationship between physical activity and executive function
in older adults. Front Hum Neurosci. 8, 2014, 1044.
[41]. Ploughman M. Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Dev Neurorehabil.
11, 2008, 236–240
[42]. Heather A Henderson, Daniel S Pine, and Nathan A Fox. Behavioral Inhibition and Developmental Risk: A Dual-
Processing Perspective. Neuro psycho pharmacology. 40(1), 2015, 207–224.
[43]. Coppin AK, Shumway-Cook A, Saczynski JS, Association of executive function and performance of dual-task
physical tests among older adults: analyses from the In Chianti study. Age Ageing. 35, 2006, 619–624
[44]. Jennifer S. Brach, PhD, PT and Jessie M. VanSwearingen. Interventions to Improve Walking in Older Adults.
Curr Transl Geriatr Exp Gerontol Rep. 2(4), 2013, 10.1007/s13670-013-0059-0
[45]. Paolo Riccardo Brustio, Daniele Magistro, Massimiliano Zecca. Age-related decrements in dual-task
performance: Comparison of different mobility and cognitive tasks. A cross sectional study. PLoS One,
12(7), 2017, e0181698.
factors among healthy older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 63(12), 2008, 1335-43.
[2]. Chang M, Jonsson P. V, Snaedal J. The effect of midlife physical activity on cognitive function among older
adults. Journals of Gerontology, 65(12), 2010, 1369–1374.
[3]. KramerA. F, Bherer L, Colcombe S. J, Dong W, and GreenoughW. T, Environmental influences on cognitive and
brain plasticity during aging. Journals of Gerontology, 59(9), 2004, 940–957.
[4]. Liu-Ambrose T, Nagamatsu L. S, Graf P, Beattie B. L, Ashe M. C, and Handy T. C. Resistance training and
executive functions: a 12-month randomized controlled trial,” Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 2010, 170–
178.
[5]. McAuley E, Rudolph D. Physical activity, aging, and psychological well-being.J Aging Phys Activity. 3, 1995,
67-96.
[6]. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a
preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res 17, 1983, 37-49.
[7]. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR.Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of
patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 12, 1975, 189-198.
[8]. Steffen TM, Hacker TA, Mollinger L. Age- and gender-related test performance in community-dwelling elderly
people: six-minute walk test, Berg balance scale, timed up & go test, and gait speeds. Phys Ther. 82(2), 2002,
128.
[9]. Hannon Peggy, Christensen Kitty. University of Washington Health Promotion Research Center, 2006.
[10]. Neva J Kirk-Sanchezand Ellen L McGough. Physical exercise and cognitive performance in the elderly: current
perspectives. Clin Interv Aging. 9, 2014, 51–62.
[11]. Wickens, Braune, Christopher D. Age differences in the speed and capacity of information processing: I. A dualtask
approach. Psychology and Aging, 2(1), 1987, 70-78.
[12]. Harber MP, Konopka AR, Douglass MD, Minchev K, Kaminsky LA, Trappe TA, Trappe S. Aerobic exercise
training improves whole muscle and single myofiber size and function in older women. Am J Physiol Regul Integr
Comp Physiol. 297(5), 2009, R1452–9.
[13]. Jamie S. McPhee, David P. French, Dean Jackson, James Nazroo, Neil Pendleton. Physical activity in older age:
perspectives for healthy ageing and frailty. Biogerontology. 17, 2016, 567–580.
[14]. Hamer M, Lavoie KL, Bacon SL. Taking up physical activity in later life and healthy ageing. British Journal of
Sports Medicine.10.1136/bjsports-2013-092993, 2013.
[15]. Sabia S, Singh-Manoux A, Hagger-Johnson G, Cambois E, Brunner EJ, Kivimaki M. Influence of individual and
combined healthy behaviours on successful aging. Can Med Assoc J. 184, 2012, 1985–1992.
[16]. Hillsdon MM, Brunner EJ, Guralnik JM, Marmot MG. Prospective study of physical activity and physical function
in early old age. Is J Prev Med. 28(3), 2005, 245-250.
[17]. Roh KH, Park HA. A meta-analysis of the effect of walking exercise on lower limb muscle endurance, whole
body endurance and upper body flexibility in elders. J Korean Acad Nurs. 43, 2013, 536–546.
[18]. Hamer M, Chida Y. Physical activity and risk of neurodegenerative disease: a systematic review of prospective
evidence. Psychol Med. 39(1), 2009, 3–11.
[19]. AlbinetC. T, Boucard G, Bouquet C. A, and Audiffren M. Increased heart rate variability and executive
performance after aerobic training in the elderly. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 109(4), 2010, 617–
624.
[20]. Kamijo K., Hayashi Y., Sakai T., Yahiro T., Tanaka K., Nishihira Y. Acute effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive
function in older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 64B, 2009, 356-363.
[21]. Mahoney J.R., Verghese J., Goldin Y., Lipton R., Holtzer R. Alerting, orienting, and executive attention in older
adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2010, 877-889.
[22]. Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves
memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, 3017–3022.
[23]. Sarah Khasawinah, Brian Caffo, Kirk I Erickson. The association between functional connectivity and cognition
in older adults. J Syst Integr Neurosci, 3(3), 2017, 1-10
[24]. Yamada M, Suzuki K, Kudo S, Totsuka M, Nakaji S, Sugawara K. Raised plasma G-CSF and IL-6 after exercise
may play a role in neutrophil mobilization into the circulation. J Appl Physiol, 92, 1985, 1789–1794.
[25]. Coen RF, Lawlor BA, Kenny R. Failure to demonstrate that memory improvement is due either to aerobic exercise
or increased hippocampal volume. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, E89.
[26]. Richter-Schmidinger T, Alexopoulos P, Horn M, et al. Influence of brain-derived neurotrophic-factor and
apolipoprotein E genetic variants on hippocampal volume and memory performance in healthy young adults. J
Neural Transm. 118, 2011, 249–257.
[27]. Matthew T. Schmolesky, David L. Webb, and Rodney A. Hansen. The Effects of Aerobic Exercise Intensity and
Duration on Levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Healthy Men. J Sports Sci Med. 12(3), 2013, 502–
511.
[28]. Emrah Duzel, Henriette Van Praag, and Michael Sendtner. Can physical exercise in old age improve memory and
hippocampal function?.Brain. 139(3), 2016, 662–673.
[29]. Al-Yahya E, Dawes H, Smith L. Cognitive motor interference while walking: a systematic review and metaanalysis.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 35(3), 2011, 715-28.
[30]. Sandra B. Chapman, Sina Aslan, Jeffrey S. Spence. Shorter term aerobic exercise improves brain, cognition, and
cardiovascular fitness in aging. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 75.
[31]. 137) Grodstein F. Cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive function. Alzheimers Dement. 3(2), 2007, S16–S22.
[32]. Waldstein SR. The relation of hypertension to cognitive function. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 12(1), 2003, 9–12.
[33]. Keith M. Diaz and Daichi Shimbo. Physical Activity and the Prevention of Hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep.
15(6), 2013, 659–668.
[34]. Burns JM, Cronk BB, Anderson HS, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and brain atrophy in early Alzheimer disease.
Neurology. 71(3), 2008, 210–216.
[35]. Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Voss MW, et al. Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly
humans. Hippocampus. 19(10), 2009, 1030–1039.
[36]. Etnier JL, Nowell PM, Landers DM, Sibley BA. A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic
fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Res Rev. 52, 2006, 119–30.
[37]. Hayes SM, Hayes JP, Cadden M, Verfaellie M. A review of cardiorespiratory fitness-related neuroplasticity in
the aging brain. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 31.
[38]. Voelcker-Rehage C, Niemann C. Structural and functional brain changes related to different types of physical
activity across the life span. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 37, 2013, 2268–95.
[39]. Bruce S. McEwen. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and
damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Eur J Pharmacol. 583(2-3), 2008, 174–185.
[40]. Michael Daly, David McMinn and Julia L. Allan. Relationship between physical activity and executive function
in older adults. Front Hum Neurosci. 8, 2014, 1044.
[41]. Ploughman M. Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Dev Neurorehabil.
11, 2008, 236–240
[42]. Heather A Henderson, Daniel S Pine, and Nathan A Fox. Behavioral Inhibition and Developmental Risk: A Dual-
Processing Perspective. Neuro psycho pharmacology. 40(1), 2015, 207–224.
[43]. Coppin AK, Shumway-Cook A, Saczynski JS, Association of executive function and performance of dual-task
physical tests among older adults: analyses from the In Chianti study. Age Ageing. 35, 2006, 619–624
[44]. Jennifer S. Brach, PhD, PT and Jessie M. VanSwearingen. Interventions to Improve Walking in Older Adults.
Curr Transl Geriatr Exp Gerontol Rep. 2(4), 2013, 10.1007/s13670-013-0059-0
[45]. Paolo Riccardo Brustio, Daniele Magistro, Massimiliano Zecca. Age-related decrements in dual-task
performance: Comparison of different mobility and cognitive tasks. A cross sectional study. PLoS One,
12(7), 2017, e0181698.