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Submitted
August 19, 2020
Published
August 19, 2020
Copyright (c) 2020 International Journal of Allied Medical Sciences and Clinical Research
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Dual task performance and executive function in physically under active and physically active elderly: A comparison
Corresponding Author(s) : Priyanka. Parate
priyanka16parate@gmail.com
International Journal of Allied Medical Sciences and Clinical Research,
Vol. 8 No. 3 (2020): 2020 Volume - 8 Issue-3
Abstract
Background
Effect of being physically active on motor and cognitive function is well known. Indirect effect of being physically active on dual tasking needs to be explored.
Aim & Objectives
To compare dual tasking and executive function in physically active and underactive elderly.
Method
124 Elderly were divided in to physically active and non-active using Rapid Assessment of Physical Activity (RAPA) scale and assessed for their Dual tasking skills using TUG-Cog, TUG-motor. Data was analyzed using unpaired t test.
Result
Physically active elderly performed significantly better than underactive elderly on Tug cog ,manual in both groups (p<0.001)
Conclusion
Physically active elderly have better dual tasking skills than their physically underactive counterparts.
Keywords
Dual tasking
Elderly
Physical activity
Atiya. Shaikh, & Priyanka. Parate. (2020). Dual task performance and executive function in physically under active and physically active elderly: A comparison. International Journal of Allied Medical Sciences and Clinical Research, 8(3), 528–534. https://doi.org/10.61096/ijamscr.v8.iss3.2020.528-534
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References
-
[1]. Hausdorff JM, Schweiger A, and Herman T, Yogev- Seligmann G. Dual-task decrements in gait: contributing
factors among healthy older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 63(12), 2008, 1335-43.
[2]. Chang M, Jonsson P. V, Snaedal J. The effect of midlife physical activity on cognitive function among older
adults. Journals of Gerontology, 65(12), 2010, 1369–1374.
[3]. KramerA. F, Bherer L, Colcombe S. J, Dong W, and GreenoughW. T, Environmental influences on cognitive and
brain plasticity during aging. Journals of Gerontology, 59(9), 2004, 940–957.
[4]. Liu-Ambrose T, Nagamatsu L. S, Graf P, Beattie B. L, Ashe M. C, and Handy T. C. Resistance training and
executive functions: a 12-month randomized controlled trial,” Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 2010, 170–
178.
[5]. McAuley E, Rudolph D. Physical activity, aging, and psychological well-being.J Aging Phys Activity. 3, 1995,
67-96.
[6]. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a
preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res 17, 1983, 37-49.
[7]. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR.Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of
patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 12, 1975, 189-198.
[8]. Steffen TM, Hacker TA, Mollinger L. Age- and gender-related test performance in community-dwelling elderly
people: six-minute walk test, Berg balance scale, timed up & go test, and gait speeds. Phys Ther. 82(2), 2002,
128.
[9]. Hannon Peggy, Christensen Kitty. University of Washington Health Promotion Research Center, 2006.
[10]. Neva J Kirk-Sanchezand Ellen L McGough. Physical exercise and cognitive performance in the elderly: current
perspectives. Clin Interv Aging. 9, 2014, 51–62.
[11]. Wickens, Braune, Christopher D. Age differences in the speed and capacity of information processing: I. A dualtask
approach. Psychology and Aging, 2(1), 1987, 70-78.
[12]. Harber MP, Konopka AR, Douglass MD, Minchev K, Kaminsky LA, Trappe TA, Trappe S. Aerobic exercise
training improves whole muscle and single myofiber size and function in older women. Am J Physiol Regul Integr
Comp Physiol. 297(5), 2009, R1452–9.
[13]. Jamie S. McPhee, David P. French, Dean Jackson, James Nazroo, Neil Pendleton. Physical activity in older age:
perspectives for healthy ageing and frailty. Biogerontology. 17, 2016, 567–580.
[14]. Hamer M, Lavoie KL, Bacon SL. Taking up physical activity in later life and healthy ageing. British Journal of
Sports Medicine.10.1136/bjsports-2013-092993, 2013.
[15]. Sabia S, Singh-Manoux A, Hagger-Johnson G, Cambois E, Brunner EJ, Kivimaki M. Influence of individual and
combined healthy behaviours on successful aging. Can Med Assoc J. 184, 2012, 1985–1992.
[16]. Hillsdon MM, Brunner EJ, Guralnik JM, Marmot MG. Prospective study of physical activity and physical function
in early old age. Is J Prev Med. 28(3), 2005, 245-250.
[17]. Roh KH, Park HA. A meta-analysis of the effect of walking exercise on lower limb muscle endurance, whole
body endurance and upper body flexibility in elders. J Korean Acad Nurs. 43, 2013, 536–546.
[18]. Hamer M, Chida Y. Physical activity and risk of neurodegenerative disease: a systematic review of prospective
evidence. Psychol Med. 39(1), 2009, 3–11.
[19]. AlbinetC. T, Boucard G, Bouquet C. A, and Audiffren M. Increased heart rate variability and executive
performance after aerobic training in the elderly. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 109(4), 2010, 617–
624.
[20]. Kamijo K., Hayashi Y., Sakai T., Yahiro T., Tanaka K., Nishihira Y. Acute effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive
function in older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 64B, 2009, 356-363.
[21]. Mahoney J.R., Verghese J., Goldin Y., Lipton R., Holtzer R. Alerting, orienting, and executive attention in older
adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2010, 877-889.
[22]. Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves
memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, 3017–3022.
[23]. Sarah Khasawinah, Brian Caffo, Kirk I Erickson. The association between functional connectivity and cognition
in older adults. J Syst Integr Neurosci, 3(3), 2017, 1-10
[24]. Yamada M, Suzuki K, Kudo S, Totsuka M, Nakaji S, Sugawara K. Raised plasma G-CSF and IL-6 after exercise
may play a role in neutrophil mobilization into the circulation. J Appl Physiol, 92, 1985, 1789–1794.
[25]. Coen RF, Lawlor BA, Kenny R. Failure to demonstrate that memory improvement is due either to aerobic exercise
or increased hippocampal volume. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, E89.
[26]. Richter-Schmidinger T, Alexopoulos P, Horn M, et al. Influence of brain-derived neurotrophic-factor and
apolipoprotein E genetic variants on hippocampal volume and memory performance in healthy young adults. J
Neural Transm. 118, 2011, 249–257.
[27]. Matthew T. Schmolesky, David L. Webb, and Rodney A. Hansen. The Effects of Aerobic Exercise Intensity and
Duration on Levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Healthy Men. J Sports Sci Med. 12(3), 2013, 502–
511.
[28]. Emrah Duzel, Henriette Van Praag, and Michael Sendtner. Can physical exercise in old age improve memory and
hippocampal function?.Brain. 139(3), 2016, 662–673.
[29]. Al-Yahya E, Dawes H, Smith L. Cognitive motor interference while walking: a systematic review and metaanalysis.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 35(3), 2011, 715-28.
[30]. Sandra B. Chapman, Sina Aslan, Jeffrey S. Spence. Shorter term aerobic exercise improves brain, cognition, and
cardiovascular fitness in aging. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 75.
[31]. 137) Grodstein F. Cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive function. Alzheimers Dement. 3(2), 2007, S16–S22.
[32]. Waldstein SR. The relation of hypertension to cognitive function. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 12(1), 2003, 9–12.
[33]. Keith M. Diaz and Daichi Shimbo. Physical Activity and the Prevention of Hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep.
15(6), 2013, 659–668.
[34]. Burns JM, Cronk BB, Anderson HS, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and brain atrophy in early Alzheimer disease.
Neurology. 71(3), 2008, 210–216.
[35]. Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Voss MW, et al. Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly
humans. Hippocampus. 19(10), 2009, 1030–1039.
[36]. Etnier JL, Nowell PM, Landers DM, Sibley BA. A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic
fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Res Rev. 52, 2006, 119–30.
[37]. Hayes SM, Hayes JP, Cadden M, Verfaellie M. A review of cardiorespiratory fitness-related neuroplasticity in
the aging brain. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 31.
[38]. Voelcker-Rehage C, Niemann C. Structural and functional brain changes related to different types of physical
activity across the life span. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 37, 2013, 2268–95.
[39]. Bruce S. McEwen. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and
damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Eur J Pharmacol. 583(2-3), 2008, 174–185.
[40]. Michael Daly, David McMinn and Julia L. Allan. Relationship between physical activity and executive function
in older adults. Front Hum Neurosci. 8, 2014, 1044.
[41]. Ploughman M. Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Dev Neurorehabil.
11, 2008, 236–240
[42]. Heather A Henderson, Daniel S Pine, and Nathan A Fox. Behavioral Inhibition and Developmental Risk: A Dual-
Processing Perspective. Neuro psycho pharmacology. 40(1), 2015, 207–224.
[43]. Coppin AK, Shumway-Cook A, Saczynski JS, Association of executive function and performance of dual-task
physical tests among older adults: analyses from the In Chianti study. Age Ageing. 35, 2006, 619–624
[44]. Jennifer S. Brach, PhD, PT and Jessie M. VanSwearingen. Interventions to Improve Walking in Older Adults.
Curr Transl Geriatr Exp Gerontol Rep. 2(4), 2013, 10.1007/s13670-013-0059-0
[45]. Paolo Riccardo Brustio, Daniele Magistro, Massimiliano Zecca. Age-related decrements in dual-task
performance: Comparison of different mobility and cognitive tasks. A cross sectional study. PLoS One,
12(7), 2017, e0181698.
References
[1]. Hausdorff JM, Schweiger A, and Herman T, Yogev- Seligmann G. Dual-task decrements in gait: contributing
factors among healthy older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 63(12), 2008, 1335-43.
[2]. Chang M, Jonsson P. V, Snaedal J. The effect of midlife physical activity on cognitive function among older
adults. Journals of Gerontology, 65(12), 2010, 1369–1374.
[3]. KramerA. F, Bherer L, Colcombe S. J, Dong W, and GreenoughW. T, Environmental influences on cognitive and
brain plasticity during aging. Journals of Gerontology, 59(9), 2004, 940–957.
[4]. Liu-Ambrose T, Nagamatsu L. S, Graf P, Beattie B. L, Ashe M. C, and Handy T. C. Resistance training and
executive functions: a 12-month randomized controlled trial,” Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 2010, 170–
178.
[5]. McAuley E, Rudolph D. Physical activity, aging, and psychological well-being.J Aging Phys Activity. 3, 1995,
67-96.
[6]. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a
preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res 17, 1983, 37-49.
[7]. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR.Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of
patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 12, 1975, 189-198.
[8]. Steffen TM, Hacker TA, Mollinger L. Age- and gender-related test performance in community-dwelling elderly
people: six-minute walk test, Berg balance scale, timed up & go test, and gait speeds. Phys Ther. 82(2), 2002,
128.
[9]. Hannon Peggy, Christensen Kitty. University of Washington Health Promotion Research Center, 2006.
[10]. Neva J Kirk-Sanchezand Ellen L McGough. Physical exercise and cognitive performance in the elderly: current
perspectives. Clin Interv Aging. 9, 2014, 51–62.
[11]. Wickens, Braune, Christopher D. Age differences in the speed and capacity of information processing: I. A dualtask
approach. Psychology and Aging, 2(1), 1987, 70-78.
[12]. Harber MP, Konopka AR, Douglass MD, Minchev K, Kaminsky LA, Trappe TA, Trappe S. Aerobic exercise
training improves whole muscle and single myofiber size and function in older women. Am J Physiol Regul Integr
Comp Physiol. 297(5), 2009, R1452–9.
[13]. Jamie S. McPhee, David P. French, Dean Jackson, James Nazroo, Neil Pendleton. Physical activity in older age:
perspectives for healthy ageing and frailty. Biogerontology. 17, 2016, 567–580.
[14]. Hamer M, Lavoie KL, Bacon SL. Taking up physical activity in later life and healthy ageing. British Journal of
Sports Medicine.10.1136/bjsports-2013-092993, 2013.
[15]. Sabia S, Singh-Manoux A, Hagger-Johnson G, Cambois E, Brunner EJ, Kivimaki M. Influence of individual and
combined healthy behaviours on successful aging. Can Med Assoc J. 184, 2012, 1985–1992.
[16]. Hillsdon MM, Brunner EJ, Guralnik JM, Marmot MG. Prospective study of physical activity and physical function
in early old age. Is J Prev Med. 28(3), 2005, 245-250.
[17]. Roh KH, Park HA. A meta-analysis of the effect of walking exercise on lower limb muscle endurance, whole
body endurance and upper body flexibility in elders. J Korean Acad Nurs. 43, 2013, 536–546.
[18]. Hamer M, Chida Y. Physical activity and risk of neurodegenerative disease: a systematic review of prospective
evidence. Psychol Med. 39(1), 2009, 3–11.
[19]. AlbinetC. T, Boucard G, Bouquet C. A, and Audiffren M. Increased heart rate variability and executive
performance after aerobic training in the elderly. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 109(4), 2010, 617–
624.
[20]. Kamijo K., Hayashi Y., Sakai T., Yahiro T., Tanaka K., Nishihira Y. Acute effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive
function in older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 64B, 2009, 356-363.
[21]. Mahoney J.R., Verghese J., Goldin Y., Lipton R., Holtzer R. Alerting, orienting, and executive attention in older
adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2010, 877-889.
[22]. Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves
memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, 3017–3022.
[23]. Sarah Khasawinah, Brian Caffo, Kirk I Erickson. The association between functional connectivity and cognition
in older adults. J Syst Integr Neurosci, 3(3), 2017, 1-10
[24]. Yamada M, Suzuki K, Kudo S, Totsuka M, Nakaji S, Sugawara K. Raised plasma G-CSF and IL-6 after exercise
may play a role in neutrophil mobilization into the circulation. J Appl Physiol, 92, 1985, 1789–1794.
[25]. Coen RF, Lawlor BA, Kenny R. Failure to demonstrate that memory improvement is due either to aerobic exercise
or increased hippocampal volume. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, E89.
[26]. Richter-Schmidinger T, Alexopoulos P, Horn M, et al. Influence of brain-derived neurotrophic-factor and
apolipoprotein E genetic variants on hippocampal volume and memory performance in healthy young adults. J
Neural Transm. 118, 2011, 249–257.
[27]. Matthew T. Schmolesky, David L. Webb, and Rodney A. Hansen. The Effects of Aerobic Exercise Intensity and
Duration on Levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Healthy Men. J Sports Sci Med. 12(3), 2013, 502–
511.
[28]. Emrah Duzel, Henriette Van Praag, and Michael Sendtner. Can physical exercise in old age improve memory and
hippocampal function?.Brain. 139(3), 2016, 662–673.
[29]. Al-Yahya E, Dawes H, Smith L. Cognitive motor interference while walking: a systematic review and metaanalysis.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 35(3), 2011, 715-28.
[30]. Sandra B. Chapman, Sina Aslan, Jeffrey S. Spence. Shorter term aerobic exercise improves brain, cognition, and
cardiovascular fitness in aging. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 75.
[31]. 137) Grodstein F. Cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive function. Alzheimers Dement. 3(2), 2007, S16–S22.
[32]. Waldstein SR. The relation of hypertension to cognitive function. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 12(1), 2003, 9–12.
[33]. Keith M. Diaz and Daichi Shimbo. Physical Activity and the Prevention of Hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep.
15(6), 2013, 659–668.
[34]. Burns JM, Cronk BB, Anderson HS, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and brain atrophy in early Alzheimer disease.
Neurology. 71(3), 2008, 210–216.
[35]. Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Voss MW, et al. Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly
humans. Hippocampus. 19(10), 2009, 1030–1039.
[36]. Etnier JL, Nowell PM, Landers DM, Sibley BA. A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic
fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Res Rev. 52, 2006, 119–30.
[37]. Hayes SM, Hayes JP, Cadden M, Verfaellie M. A review of cardiorespiratory fitness-related neuroplasticity in
the aging brain. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 31.
[38]. Voelcker-Rehage C, Niemann C. Structural and functional brain changes related to different types of physical
activity across the life span. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 37, 2013, 2268–95.
[39]. Bruce S. McEwen. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and
damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Eur J Pharmacol. 583(2-3), 2008, 174–185.
[40]. Michael Daly, David McMinn and Julia L. Allan. Relationship between physical activity and executive function
in older adults. Front Hum Neurosci. 8, 2014, 1044.
[41]. Ploughman M. Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Dev Neurorehabil.
11, 2008, 236–240
[42]. Heather A Henderson, Daniel S Pine, and Nathan A Fox. Behavioral Inhibition and Developmental Risk: A Dual-
Processing Perspective. Neuro psycho pharmacology. 40(1), 2015, 207–224.
[43]. Coppin AK, Shumway-Cook A, Saczynski JS, Association of executive function and performance of dual-task
physical tests among older adults: analyses from the In Chianti study. Age Ageing. 35, 2006, 619–624
[44]. Jennifer S. Brach, PhD, PT and Jessie M. VanSwearingen. Interventions to Improve Walking in Older Adults.
Curr Transl Geriatr Exp Gerontol Rep. 2(4), 2013, 10.1007/s13670-013-0059-0
[45]. Paolo Riccardo Brustio, Daniele Magistro, Massimiliano Zecca. Age-related decrements in dual-task
performance: Comparison of different mobility and cognitive tasks. A cross sectional study. PLoS One,
12(7), 2017, e0181698.
factors among healthy older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 63(12), 2008, 1335-43.
[2]. Chang M, Jonsson P. V, Snaedal J. The effect of midlife physical activity on cognitive function among older
adults. Journals of Gerontology, 65(12), 2010, 1369–1374.
[3]. KramerA. F, Bherer L, Colcombe S. J, Dong W, and GreenoughW. T, Environmental influences on cognitive and
brain plasticity during aging. Journals of Gerontology, 59(9), 2004, 940–957.
[4]. Liu-Ambrose T, Nagamatsu L. S, Graf P, Beattie B. L, Ashe M. C, and Handy T. C. Resistance training and
executive functions: a 12-month randomized controlled trial,” Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 2010, 170–
178.
[5]. McAuley E, Rudolph D. Physical activity, aging, and psychological well-being.J Aging Phys Activity. 3, 1995,
67-96.
[6]. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a
preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res 17, 1983, 37-49.
[7]. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR.Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of
patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 12, 1975, 189-198.
[8]. Steffen TM, Hacker TA, Mollinger L. Age- and gender-related test performance in community-dwelling elderly
people: six-minute walk test, Berg balance scale, timed up & go test, and gait speeds. Phys Ther. 82(2), 2002,
128.
[9]. Hannon Peggy, Christensen Kitty. University of Washington Health Promotion Research Center, 2006.
[10]. Neva J Kirk-Sanchezand Ellen L McGough. Physical exercise and cognitive performance in the elderly: current
perspectives. Clin Interv Aging. 9, 2014, 51–62.
[11]. Wickens, Braune, Christopher D. Age differences in the speed and capacity of information processing: I. A dualtask
approach. Psychology and Aging, 2(1), 1987, 70-78.
[12]. Harber MP, Konopka AR, Douglass MD, Minchev K, Kaminsky LA, Trappe TA, Trappe S. Aerobic exercise
training improves whole muscle and single myofiber size and function in older women. Am J Physiol Regul Integr
Comp Physiol. 297(5), 2009, R1452–9.
[13]. Jamie S. McPhee, David P. French, Dean Jackson, James Nazroo, Neil Pendleton. Physical activity in older age:
perspectives for healthy ageing and frailty. Biogerontology. 17, 2016, 567–580.
[14]. Hamer M, Lavoie KL, Bacon SL. Taking up physical activity in later life and healthy ageing. British Journal of
Sports Medicine.10.1136/bjsports-2013-092993, 2013.
[15]. Sabia S, Singh-Manoux A, Hagger-Johnson G, Cambois E, Brunner EJ, Kivimaki M. Influence of individual and
combined healthy behaviours on successful aging. Can Med Assoc J. 184, 2012, 1985–1992.
[16]. Hillsdon MM, Brunner EJ, Guralnik JM, Marmot MG. Prospective study of physical activity and physical function
in early old age. Is J Prev Med. 28(3), 2005, 245-250.
[17]. Roh KH, Park HA. A meta-analysis of the effect of walking exercise on lower limb muscle endurance, whole
body endurance and upper body flexibility in elders. J Korean Acad Nurs. 43, 2013, 536–546.
[18]. Hamer M, Chida Y. Physical activity and risk of neurodegenerative disease: a systematic review of prospective
evidence. Psychol Med. 39(1), 2009, 3–11.
[19]. AlbinetC. T, Boucard G, Bouquet C. A, and Audiffren M. Increased heart rate variability and executive
performance after aerobic training in the elderly. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 109(4), 2010, 617–
624.
[20]. Kamijo K., Hayashi Y., Sakai T., Yahiro T., Tanaka K., Nishihira Y. Acute effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive
function in older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 64B, 2009, 356-363.
[21]. Mahoney J.R., Verghese J., Goldin Y., Lipton R., Holtzer R. Alerting, orienting, and executive attention in older
adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2010, 877-889.
[22]. Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves
memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, 3017–3022.
[23]. Sarah Khasawinah, Brian Caffo, Kirk I Erickson. The association between functional connectivity and cognition
in older adults. J Syst Integr Neurosci, 3(3), 2017, 1-10
[24]. Yamada M, Suzuki K, Kudo S, Totsuka M, Nakaji S, Sugawara K. Raised plasma G-CSF and IL-6 after exercise
may play a role in neutrophil mobilization into the circulation. J Appl Physiol, 92, 1985, 1789–1794.
[25]. Coen RF, Lawlor BA, Kenny R. Failure to demonstrate that memory improvement is due either to aerobic exercise
or increased hippocampal volume. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108, 2011, E89.
[26]. Richter-Schmidinger T, Alexopoulos P, Horn M, et al. Influence of brain-derived neurotrophic-factor and
apolipoprotein E genetic variants on hippocampal volume and memory performance in healthy young adults. J
Neural Transm. 118, 2011, 249–257.
[27]. Matthew T. Schmolesky, David L. Webb, and Rodney A. Hansen. The Effects of Aerobic Exercise Intensity and
Duration on Levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Healthy Men. J Sports Sci Med. 12(3), 2013, 502–
511.
[28]. Emrah Duzel, Henriette Van Praag, and Michael Sendtner. Can physical exercise in old age improve memory and
hippocampal function?.Brain. 139(3), 2016, 662–673.
[29]. Al-Yahya E, Dawes H, Smith L. Cognitive motor interference while walking: a systematic review and metaanalysis.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 35(3), 2011, 715-28.
[30]. Sandra B. Chapman, Sina Aslan, Jeffrey S. Spence. Shorter term aerobic exercise improves brain, cognition, and
cardiovascular fitness in aging. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 75.
[31]. 137) Grodstein F. Cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive function. Alzheimers Dement. 3(2), 2007, S16–S22.
[32]. Waldstein SR. The relation of hypertension to cognitive function. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 12(1), 2003, 9–12.
[33]. Keith M. Diaz and Daichi Shimbo. Physical Activity and the Prevention of Hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep.
15(6), 2013, 659–668.
[34]. Burns JM, Cronk BB, Anderson HS, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and brain atrophy in early Alzheimer disease.
Neurology. 71(3), 2008, 210–216.
[35]. Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Voss MW, et al. Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly
humans. Hippocampus. 19(10), 2009, 1030–1039.
[36]. Etnier JL, Nowell PM, Landers DM, Sibley BA. A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic
fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Res Rev. 52, 2006, 119–30.
[37]. Hayes SM, Hayes JP, Cadden M, Verfaellie M. A review of cardiorespiratory fitness-related neuroplasticity in
the aging brain. Front Aging Neurosci. 5, 2013, 31.
[38]. Voelcker-Rehage C, Niemann C. Structural and functional brain changes related to different types of physical
activity across the life span. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 37, 2013, 2268–95.
[39]. Bruce S. McEwen. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and
damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Eur J Pharmacol. 583(2-3), 2008, 174–185.
[40]. Michael Daly, David McMinn and Julia L. Allan. Relationship between physical activity and executive function
in older adults. Front Hum Neurosci. 8, 2014, 1044.
[41]. Ploughman M. Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Dev Neurorehabil.
11, 2008, 236–240
[42]. Heather A Henderson, Daniel S Pine, and Nathan A Fox. Behavioral Inhibition and Developmental Risk: A Dual-
Processing Perspective. Neuro psycho pharmacology. 40(1), 2015, 207–224.
[43]. Coppin AK, Shumway-Cook A, Saczynski JS, Association of executive function and performance of dual-task
physical tests among older adults: analyses from the In Chianti study. Age Ageing. 35, 2006, 619–624
[44]. Jennifer S. Brach, PhD, PT and Jessie M. VanSwearingen. Interventions to Improve Walking in Older Adults.
Curr Transl Geriatr Exp Gerontol Rep. 2(4), 2013, 10.1007/s13670-013-0059-0
[45]. Paolo Riccardo Brustio, Daniele Magistro, Massimiliano Zecca. Age-related decrements in dual-task
performance: Comparison of different mobility and cognitive tasks. A cross sectional study. PLoS One,
12(7), 2017, e0181698.
