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Parkinson's Disease: Insights into Epidemiology, Experimental Models, and Novel Therapeutic Approaches
International Journal of Allied Medical Sciences and Clinical Research,
Vol. 13 No. 1 (2025): 2025 Volume -13 - Issue 1
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects motor functions, with symptoms such as tremors, bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability. Non-motor symptoms, including cognitive impairment and mood disorders, also contribute to the disease burden. While the exact etiology remains unclear, both genetic and environmental factors play a role in its onset and progression. The prevalence of PD is increasing, particularly among aging populations, with men being more affected than women. Various experimental models, including chemically induced and genetic animal models, are used to study PD pathophysiology and evaluate potential treatments. Current therapeutic approaches focus on symptom management through pharmacological treatments such as levodopa, dopamine agonists, and MAO-B inhibitors, as well as non-pharmacological interventions like physiotherapy, cognitive therapy, and deep brain stimulation (DBS). Despite advancements in understanding PD, no cure exists, and research continues to explore disease-modifying treatments and early diagnostic methods. This review highlights key epidemiological trends, experimental research, and current therapeutic strategies, emphasizing the need for multidisciplinary approaches to improve patient outcomes and quality of life.
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- Sherer TB, S Chowdhury, K Peabody, D Brooks:Overcoming obstacles in Parkinson’s Disease. Movement Disorders 27(13), 1606-1611 (2012).
- Chou K: Clinical manifestations of Parkinson Disease.UpToDate. Retrieved on 7/22/2013 from www.uptodate.com. (2013).
- Parkinson’s Disease Foundation: Statistics on Parkinson’s. Retrieved from http://www.pdf.org/en/parkinson_statistics. (2013).
- Fritsch T, K Smyth, M Wallendal, T Hyde, G Leo, D Geldmacher: Parkinson Disease: Research update and clinical management. Southern Medical Association 105(12), 650-656 (2012).
- Wright Willis A, B Evanoff, M Lian, S Criswell, B Racette: Geographic and ethnic variation in Parkinson Disease: A population-based study of US Medicare Beneficiaries. Neuroepidemiology, 34, 143-151 (2010).
- Chinta S, C Lieu, M Demaria, R Laberge, J Campisi, J Anderson: Environmental stress, ageing, and glial cell senescence: A novel mechanistic link to Parkinson’s Disease? Journal of Internal Medicine 273, 429-436 (2013).
- 7.Parkinson J. An Essay on the Shaking Palsy. London: Sherwood, Neely, and Jones; 1817.
- 8.Schrag A, Horsfall L, Walters K, et al. Prediagnostic presentations of Parkinson’s disease in primary care: a case-control study. Lancet Neurol. 2015;1:57–64
- 9.Parkinson’s Disease Foundation Statistics on Parkinson’s.
- 10.Rumayor MA, Arrieta O, Sotelo J, et al. Female gender but not cigarette smoking delays the onset of Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2009;111:738–741.
- 11.Simonson W, Hauser RA, Schapira AHV. Role of the pharmacist in the effective management of wearing-off in Parkinson’s disease. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41:1842–1849.
- 12.Liu R, Guo X, Park Y, et al. Caffeine intake, smoking, and risk of Parkinson disease in men and women. Am J Epidemiol. 2012;175:1200–1207
- 13.Soreq L, Ben-Shaul Y, Israel Z, et al. Meta-analysis of genetic and environmental Parkinson’s disease models reveals a common role of mitochondrial protection pathways.
- Prof Yoav Ben-Shloma,Sirwan Darweesh et al ;The epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease , The Lancet. 2024 Jan 20:P283-292
- Tysnes OB, Storstein A. Epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2017 Aug;124(8):901-905.
- Mabtrila RJ, Rinne UK. Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease in Finland. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 1976;53(2):125-130.
- Zirra A, Rao SC, Bestwick J, Rajalingam R, Marras C, Blauwendraat C, Mata IF, Noyce AJ. Gender differences in the prevalence of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord Clin Pract. 2023;10(1):86–93. doi: 10.1002/mdc3.13584.
- Ben-Joseph A, Marshall CR, Lees AJ, Noyce AJ. Ethnic variation in the manifestation of Parkinson’s disease: A narrative review. J Parkinsons Dis. 2020;10(1):31–45. doi: 10.3233/JPD-191763.
- 19.Willis AW, Evanoff BA, Lian M, Criswell SR, Racette BA. Geographic and ethnic variation in Parkinson disease: A population-based study of US Medicare beneficiaries. Neuroepidemiology. 2010; 34(3):143–151. doi: 10.1159/000275491.
- Gamber KM. Animal models of Parkinson's disease: New models provide greater translational and predictive value. Biotechniques. 2018;64(3):210–211.
- Willis AW, Evanoff BA, Lian M, Criswell SR, Racette BA. Geographic and ethnic variation in Parkinson disease: A population-based study of US Medicare beneficiaries. Neuroepidemiology. 2010;34(3):143–151. doi: 10.1159/000275491.
- Antonosante A, Castelli V, Sette M, Alfonsetti M, Catanesi M, Benedetti E, Ardini M, Cimini A, d’Angelo M. Neuroprotective effects of the PPARβ/δ antagonist GSK0660 in in vitro and in vivo Parkinson’s disease models. Biol Res. 2023;56:27. doi: 10.1186/s40659-023-00438-1.
- Loryan I, Fridén M, Hammarlund-Udenaes M. The brain slice method for studying drug distribution in the CNS. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2013;10(1):6.
- Baumuratov AS, Antony PMA, Ostaszewski M, He F, Salamanca L, Antunes L, Weber J, Longhino L, Derkinderen P, Koopman WJH, Diederich NJ. Enteric neurons from Parkinson’s disease patients display ex vivo aberrations in mitochondrial structure. Neurobiol Dis. 2016; 94:33-44. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.08.004
- Thome AD, Atassi F, Wang J, Faridar A, Zhao W, Thonhoff JR, Beers DR, Lai EC, Appe SH. Ex vivo expansion of dysfunctional regulatory T lymphocytes restores suppressive function in Parkinson’s disease. npj Parkinson's Dis. 2021;7:41. doi:10.1038/s41531-021-00188-5
- Opara J A, Małecki A, Małecka E, Socha T. Motor assessment in Parkinson`s disease. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2017; 24(3): 411–415.
- Krzysztoń K, Stolarski J, Kochanowski J. Evaluation of balance disorders in Parkinson’s disease using simple diagnostic tests—not so simple to choose. Front Neurol. 2018; 9:932.
- Zahoor I, Shafi A, Haq E. Pharmacological Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease. In: Stoker TB, Greenland JC, editors. Parkinson’s Disease: Pathogenesis and Clinical Aspects Brisbane (AU): Codon Publications; 2018 Dec 21. Chapter 7.
- Kalbe E, Bloem BR, Nieuwboer A, et al. Special issue: Non-pharmacological interventions for people with Parkinson’s disease: are we entering a new era? J Parkinsons Dis. 2024;14(s1)
References
Sherer TB, S Chowdhury, K Peabody, D Brooks:Overcoming obstacles in Parkinson’s Disease. Movement Disorders 27(13), 1606-1611 (2012).
Chou K: Clinical manifestations of Parkinson Disease.UpToDate. Retrieved on 7/22/2013 from www.uptodate.com. (2013).
Parkinson’s Disease Foundation: Statistics on Parkinson’s. Retrieved from http://www.pdf.org/en/parkinson_statistics. (2013).
Fritsch T, K Smyth, M Wallendal, T Hyde, G Leo, D Geldmacher: Parkinson Disease: Research update and clinical management. Southern Medical Association 105(12), 650-656 (2012).
Wright Willis A, B Evanoff, M Lian, S Criswell, B Racette: Geographic and ethnic variation in Parkinson Disease: A population-based study of US Medicare Beneficiaries. Neuroepidemiology, 34, 143-151 (2010).
Chinta S, C Lieu, M Demaria, R Laberge, J Campisi, J Anderson: Environmental stress, ageing, and glial cell senescence: A novel mechanistic link to Parkinson’s Disease? Journal of Internal Medicine 273, 429-436 (2013).
7.Parkinson J. An Essay on the Shaking Palsy. London: Sherwood, Neely, and Jones; 1817.
8.Schrag A, Horsfall L, Walters K, et al. Prediagnostic presentations of Parkinson’s disease in primary care: a case-control study. Lancet Neurol. 2015;1:57–64
9.Parkinson’s Disease Foundation Statistics on Parkinson’s.
10.Rumayor MA, Arrieta O, Sotelo J, et al. Female gender but not cigarette smoking delays the onset of Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2009;111:738–741.
11.Simonson W, Hauser RA, Schapira AHV. Role of the pharmacist in the effective management of wearing-off in Parkinson’s disease. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41:1842–1849.
12.Liu R, Guo X, Park Y, et al. Caffeine intake, smoking, and risk of Parkinson disease in men and women. Am J Epidemiol. 2012;175:1200–1207
13.Soreq L, Ben-Shaul Y, Israel Z, et al. Meta-analysis of genetic and environmental Parkinson’s disease models reveals a common role of mitochondrial protection pathways.
Prof Yoav Ben-Shloma,Sirwan Darweesh et al ;The epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease , The Lancet. 2024 Jan 20:P283-292
Tysnes OB, Storstein A. Epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2017 Aug;124(8):901-905.
Mabtrila RJ, Rinne UK. Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease in Finland. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 1976;53(2):125-130.
Zirra A, Rao SC, Bestwick J, Rajalingam R, Marras C, Blauwendraat C, Mata IF, Noyce AJ. Gender differences in the prevalence of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord Clin Pract. 2023;10(1):86–93. doi: 10.1002/mdc3.13584.
Ben-Joseph A, Marshall CR, Lees AJ, Noyce AJ. Ethnic variation in the manifestation of Parkinson’s disease: A narrative review. J Parkinsons Dis. 2020;10(1):31–45. doi: 10.3233/JPD-191763.
19.Willis AW, Evanoff BA, Lian M, Criswell SR, Racette BA. Geographic and ethnic variation in Parkinson disease: A population-based study of US Medicare beneficiaries. Neuroepidemiology. 2010; 34(3):143–151. doi: 10.1159/000275491.
Gamber KM. Animal models of Parkinson's disease: New models provide greater translational and predictive value. Biotechniques. 2018;64(3):210–211.
Willis AW, Evanoff BA, Lian M, Criswell SR, Racette BA. Geographic and ethnic variation in Parkinson disease: A population-based study of US Medicare beneficiaries. Neuroepidemiology. 2010;34(3):143–151. doi: 10.1159/000275491.
Antonosante A, Castelli V, Sette M, Alfonsetti M, Catanesi M, Benedetti E, Ardini M, Cimini A, d’Angelo M. Neuroprotective effects of the PPARβ/δ antagonist GSK0660 in in vitro and in vivo Parkinson’s disease models. Biol Res. 2023;56:27. doi: 10.1186/s40659-023-00438-1.
Loryan I, Fridén M, Hammarlund-Udenaes M. The brain slice method for studying drug distribution in the CNS. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2013;10(1):6.
Baumuratov AS, Antony PMA, Ostaszewski M, He F, Salamanca L, Antunes L, Weber J, Longhino L, Derkinderen P, Koopman WJH, Diederich NJ. Enteric neurons from Parkinson’s disease patients display ex vivo aberrations in mitochondrial structure. Neurobiol Dis. 2016; 94:33-44. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.08.004
Thome AD, Atassi F, Wang J, Faridar A, Zhao W, Thonhoff JR, Beers DR, Lai EC, Appe SH. Ex vivo expansion of dysfunctional regulatory T lymphocytes restores suppressive function in Parkinson’s disease. npj Parkinson's Dis. 2021;7:41. doi:10.1038/s41531-021-00188-5
Opara J A, Małecki A, Małecka E, Socha T. Motor assessment in Parkinson`s disease. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2017; 24(3): 411–415.
Krzysztoń K, Stolarski J, Kochanowski J. Evaluation of balance disorders in Parkinson’s disease using simple diagnostic tests—not so simple to choose. Front Neurol. 2018; 9:932.
Zahoor I, Shafi A, Haq E. Pharmacological Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease. In: Stoker TB, Greenland JC, editors. Parkinson’s Disease: Pathogenesis and Clinical Aspects Brisbane (AU): Codon Publications; 2018 Dec 21. Chapter 7.
Kalbe E, Bloem BR, Nieuwboer A, et al. Special issue: Non-pharmacological interventions for people with Parkinson’s disease: are we entering a new era? J Parkinsons Dis. 2024;14(s1)