Ebola Virus Disease (Evd) or Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (Ehf)
Corresponding Author(s) : N.Sriram
srirampharma@gmail.com
International Journal of Allied Medical Sciences and Clinical Research,
Vol. 2 No. 4 (2014): 2014 Volume 2- Issue -4
Abstract
Ebola virus disease (EVD), also known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. EVD outbreaks have a case fatality rate of up to 90%. EVD outbreaks occur primarily in remote villages in Central and West Africa, near tropical rainforests. The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. Fruit bats of the Pteropodidae family are considered to be the natural host of the Ebola virus. Severely ill patients require intensive supportive care. No licensed specific treatment or vaccine is available for use in people or animals.
Keywords
Ebola virus disease
Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF)
Viral haemorrhagic fever
1.
N.Sriram. Ebola Virus Disease (Evd) or Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (Ehf). Int. J. of Allied Med. Sci. and Clin. Res. [Internet]. 2020 Aug. 1 [cited 2026 May 2];2(4):269-78. Available from: https://ijamscr.com/ijamscr/article/view/87
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References
-
Ebola virus disease Fact sheet N°103". World Health Organization. March 2014.
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in West Africa". WHO. Apr 21 2014.
C.M. Fauquet (2005). Virus taxonomy classification and nomenclature of viruses; 8th report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Oxford: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 648.
Gatherer D (2014). "The 2014 Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa". J. Gen. Virol. 95 (Pt 8): 1619–1624.
Hoenen T, Groseth A, Falzarano D, Feldmann H (May 2006). "Ebola virus: unravelling pathogenesis to combat a deadly disease". Trends in Molecular Medicine 12 (5).
"Ebola Virus, Clinical Presentation". Medscape. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
Fisher-Hoch SP, Platt GS, Neild GH, Southee T, Baskerville A, Raymond RT, Lloyd G, Simpson DI (1985). "Pathophysiology of shock and hemorrhage in a fulminating viral infection (Ebola)". J. Infect. Dis. 152 (5): 887–894.
Gatherer, D (2014 Aug). "The 2014 Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa.". The Journal of general virology 95 (Pt 8):
Kiley MP, Bowen ET, Eddy GA, Isaäcson M, Johnson KM, McCormick JB, Murphy FA, Pattyn SR, Peters D, Prozesky OW, Regnery RL, Simpson DI, Slenczka W, Sureau P, van der Groen G, Webb PA, Wulff H (1982). "Filoviridae: A taxonomic home for Marburg and Ebola viruses?". Intervirology 18 (1–2)
Geisbert TW, Jahrling PB (1995). "Differentiation of filoviruses by electron microscopy". Virus research 39(2–3)
Smith, Tara (2005). Ebola (Deadly Diseases and Epidemics). Chelsea House Publications.
Sullivan N, Yang ZY, Nabel GJ (2003). "Ebola Virus Pathogenesis: Implications for Vaccines and Therapies" (Free full text). Journal of Virology 77(18)
Hoenen T, Groseth A, Feldmann H (July 2012)."Current ebola vaccines". Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy 12 (7): 859–72
Choi JH, Croyle MA (December 2013). "Emerging targets and novel approaches to Ebola virus prophylaxis and treatment". BioDrugs 27 (6): 565–83.
Xu L, Sanchez A, Yang Z, Zaki SR, Nabel EG, Nichol ST, Nabel GJ (1998). "Immunization for Ebola virus infection". Nature Medicine 4 (1): 37–42.
Sullivan NJ, Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Xu L, Yang ZY, Roederer M, Koup RA, Jahrling PB, Nabel GJ (2003). "Accelerated vaccination for Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever in non-human primates". Nature 424(6949): 681–684.
Geisbert TW, Daddario-Dicaprio KM, Geisbert JB, Reed DS, Feldmann F, Grolla A, Ströher U, Fritz EA, Hensley LE, Jones SM, Feldmann H (2008). "Vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccines protect nonhuman primates against aerosol challenge with Ebola and Marburg viruses". Vaccine 26 (52): 6894–6900.doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.09.082.
Geisbert TW, Daddario-Dicaprio KM, Lewis MG, Geisbert JB, Grolla A, Leung A, Paragas J, Matthias L, Smith MA, Jones SM, Hensley LE, Feldmann H, Jahrling PB (2008). "Vesicular Stomatitis Virus-Based Ebola Vaccine is Well-Tolerated and Protects Immuno compromised Nonhuman Primates". In Kawaoka, Yoshihiro. PLoS Pathogens 4 (11): e1000225.
Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Leung A, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Hensley LE, Grolla A, Feldmann H (2009)."Single-Injection Vaccine Protects Nonhuman Primates against Infection with Marburg Virus and Three Species of Ebola Virus". Journal of Virology 83 (14): 7296–7304.
Warfield KL, Swenson DL, Olinger GG, Kalina WV, Aman MJ, Bavari S (2007). "Ebola Virus?Like Particle–Based Vaccine Protects Nonhuman Primates against Lethal Ebola Virus Challenge". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 196: S430–S437.
Oplinger, Anne A. (2003-11-18). NIAID Ebola vaccine enters human trial. Bio-Medicine.
"Ebola/Marburg Vaccine Development" (Press release). National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. 2008-09-15.
Martin JE, Sullivan NJ, Enama ME, Gordon IJ, Roederer M, Koup RA, Bailer RT, Chakrabarti BK, Bailey MA, Gomez PL, Andrews CA, Moodie Z, Gu L, Stein JA, Nabel GJ, Graham BS (2006). "A DNA Vaccine for Ebola Virus is Safe and Immunogenic in a Phase I Clinical Trial". Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 13 (11): 1267–1277.
Bush, L (2005). "Crucell and NIH sign Ebola vaccine manufacturing contract". Pharmaceutical Technology29: 28.
Jones SM, Feldmann H, Ströher U, Geisbert JB, Fernando L, Grolla A, Klenk HD, Sullivan NJ, Volchkov VE, Fritz EA, Daddario KM, Hensley LE, Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW (2005). "Live attenuated recombinant vaccine protects nonhuman primates against Ebola and Marburg viruses". Nature Medicine 11 (7): 786–790.
Phoolcharoen W, Dye JM, Kilbourne J, Piensook K, Pratt WD, Arntzen CJ, Chen Q, Mason HS, Herbst-Kralovetz MM (2011). "A nonreplicating subunit vaccine protects mice against lethal Ebola virus challenge".Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108 (51): 20695–700.
"Canadian Press". CBC News (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC)). 20 March 2009.
Tuffs A (2009). "Experimental vaccine may have saved Hamburg scientist from Ebola fever".
Feldmann H, Jones SM, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Geisbert JB, Ströher U, Grolla A, Bray M, Fritz EA, Fernando L, Feldmann F, Hensley LE, Geisbert TW (2007). "Effective Post-Exposure Treatment of Ebola Infection". PLoS Pathogens 3 (1): e2.
Geisbert TW, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Williams KJ, Geisbert JB, Leung A, Feldmann F, Hensley LE, Feldmann H, Jones SM (2008). "Recombinant Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Vector Mediates Postexposure Protection against Sudan Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever in Nonhuman Primates". Journal of Virology 82 (11): 5664–5668.
Bausch DG, Feldmann H, Geisbert TW, Bray M, Sprecher AG, Boumandouki P, Rollin PE, Roth C (2007). "Outbreaks of Filovirus Hemorrhagic Fever: Time to Refocus on the Patient". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 196: S136–S141.
Jeffs B (2006). "A clinical guide to viral haemorrhagic fevers: Ebola, Marburg and Lassa". Tropical Doctor 36(1)
Nkoghé D, Formenty P, Nnégué S, Mvé MT, Hypolite I, Léonard P, Leroy E (2004). "Practical guidelines for the management of Ebola infected patients in the field". Medecine tropicale : revue du Corps de sante colonial 64 (2): 199–204.
World Health Organization (2008-12-27). RD Congo: Fièvre hémorragique à virus Ebola au Kasaï Occidental, Rapport de situation No 1 des 26 & 27 décembre 2008 (in French).
"WHO | Ebola outbreak in Democratic Republic of Congo – update". Who.int. 2012-08-21.
"Ebola outbreak in DRC – Disaster News Network". Disasternews.net. 2012-08-22.
Castillo M (2012). Ebola virus claims 31 lives in Democratic Republic of the Congo. United States: CBS News.
"Guidelines for Evaluation of US Patients Suspected of Having Ebola Virus Disease". CDC. August 1, 2014.
World Health Organization (2014-04-07). "Ebola virus disease, West Africa (Situation as of 7 April 2014) - Guinea".
"Ebola virus disease, West Africa – update 25 July 2014". WHO: Outbreak news. World Health Organization. 2014-07-25.
"Emory Healthcare statement and letter to the Emory Community". Emory Healthcare Statement. Emory University. 2014-08-01.
Botelho G, Brumfield B, Carter CJ (2014-08-02)."Ebola coming to U.S, as Atlanta hospital prepares". CNN.com.
Harf M (2014-08-01). "Medical Evacuations of Two U.S. Citizens From West Africa". Press Statement. U.S. Department of State.
Borio L, Inglesby T, Peters CJ, Schmaljohn AL, Hughes JM, Jahrling PB, Ksiazek T, Johnson KM, Meyerhoff A, O'Toole T, Ascher MS, Bartlett J, Breman JG, Eitzen EM, Hamburg M, Hauer J, Henderson DA, Johnson RT, Kwik G, Layton M, Lillibridge S, Nabel GJ, Osterholm MT, Perl TM, Russell P, Tonat K (2002). "Hemorrhagic fever viruses as biological weapons: medical and public health management". Journal of the American Medical Association 287 (18): 2391–405.
Salvaggio MR, Baddley JW (2004). "Other viral bioweapons: Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever".Dermatologic clinics 22 (3): 291–302,
Rouquet P, Froment JM, Bermejo M, Kilbourn A, Karesh W, Reed P, Kumulungui B, Yaba P, Délicat A, Rollin PE, Leroy EM (Feb 2005). "Wild animal mortality monitoring and human Ebola outbreaks, Gabon and Republic of Congo, 2001–2003" (Free full text).Emerging Infectious Diseases 11 (2): 283–290.
Leroy EM, Rouquet P, Formenty P, Souquière S, Kilbourne A, Froment JM, Bermejo M, Smit S, Karesh W, Swanepoel R, Zaki SR, Rollin PE (2004). "Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central African wildlife". Science 303 (5656): 387–390.Bibcode:2004Sci...303..387L.
Choi, JH; Croyle, MA (2013 Dec). "Emerging targets and novel approaches to Ebola virus prophylaxis and treatment.". BioDrugs : clinical immunotherapeutics, biopharmaceuticals and gene therapy 27 (6): 565–83.
Formenty P, Boesch C, Wyers M, Steiner C, Donati F, Dind F, Walker F, Le Guenno B (1999). "Ebola virus outbreak among wild chimpanzees living in a rain forest of Côte d'Ivoire". The Journal of infectious diseases. 179. Suppl 1 (s1): S120–S126..
Weingartl HM, Nfon C, Kobinger G (2013). "Review of Ebola virus infections in domestic animals". Dev Biol (Basel) 135: 211–8.
Johansen LM, Brannan JM, Delos SE, Shoemaker CJ, Stossel A, Lear C, Hoffstrom BG, Dewald LE, Schornberg KL, Scully C, Lehár J, Hensley LE, White JM, Olinger GG (2013). "FDA-approved selective estrogen receptor modulators inhibit Ebola virus infection". Sci Transl Med 5 (190): 190ra79.doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3005471.
Mupapa K, Massamba M, Kibadi K, Kuvula K, Bwaka A, Kipasa M, Colebunders R, Muyembe-Tamfum JJ (1999). "Treatment of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever with Blood Transfusions from Convalescent Patients". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 179: S18–S23.
Feldmann H, Geisbert TW (2011). "Ebola haemorrhagic fever". The Lancet 377 (9768): 849–862.
Saphire, EO (2013 Nov). "An update on the use of antibodies against the filoviruses.". Immunotherapy 5(11): 1221–33.
"Mystery Ebola virus serum manufactured by San Diego firm". Los Angeles Times. August 4, 2014.
Geisbert TW, Lee AC, Robbins M, Geisbert JB, Honko AN, Sood V, Johnson JC, de Jong S, Tavakoli I, Judge A, Hensley LE, Maclachlan I (2010). "Postexposure protection of non-human primates against a lethal Ebola virus challenge with RNA interference: A proof-of-concept study". The Lancet 375(9729): 1896–1905.
Warren TK, Warfield KL, Wells J, Swenson DL, Donner KS, Van Tongeren SA, Garza NL, Dong L, Mourich DV, Crumley S, Nichols DK, Iversen PL, Bavari S (2010). "Advanced antisense therapies for post exposure protection against lethal filovirus infections". Nature Medicine 16 (9): 991–994.
Helen Branswell (August 3, 2014). "Nancy Writebol, U.S. missionary, didn't get TKM-Ebola drug, Tekmira says". The Canadian Press.
"Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever Signs and Symptoms". CDC. January 28, 2014.
References
Ebola virus disease Fact sheet N°103". World Health Organization. March 2014.
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in West Africa". WHO. Apr 21 2014.
C.M. Fauquet (2005). Virus taxonomy classification and nomenclature of viruses; 8th report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Oxford: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 648.
Gatherer D (2014). "The 2014 Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa". J. Gen. Virol. 95 (Pt 8): 1619–1624.
Hoenen T, Groseth A, Falzarano D, Feldmann H (May 2006). "Ebola virus: unravelling pathogenesis to combat a deadly disease". Trends in Molecular Medicine 12 (5).
"Ebola Virus, Clinical Presentation". Medscape. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
Fisher-Hoch SP, Platt GS, Neild GH, Southee T, Baskerville A, Raymond RT, Lloyd G, Simpson DI (1985). "Pathophysiology of shock and hemorrhage in a fulminating viral infection (Ebola)". J. Infect. Dis. 152 (5): 887–894.
Gatherer, D (2014 Aug). "The 2014 Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa.". The Journal of general virology 95 (Pt 8):
Kiley MP, Bowen ET, Eddy GA, Isaäcson M, Johnson KM, McCormick JB, Murphy FA, Pattyn SR, Peters D, Prozesky OW, Regnery RL, Simpson DI, Slenczka W, Sureau P, van der Groen G, Webb PA, Wulff H (1982). "Filoviridae: A taxonomic home for Marburg and Ebola viruses?". Intervirology 18 (1–2)
Geisbert TW, Jahrling PB (1995). "Differentiation of filoviruses by electron microscopy". Virus research 39(2–3)
Smith, Tara (2005). Ebola (Deadly Diseases and Epidemics). Chelsea House Publications.
Sullivan N, Yang ZY, Nabel GJ (2003). "Ebola Virus Pathogenesis: Implications for Vaccines and Therapies" (Free full text). Journal of Virology 77(18)
Hoenen T, Groseth A, Feldmann H (July 2012)."Current ebola vaccines". Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy 12 (7): 859–72
Choi JH, Croyle MA (December 2013). "Emerging targets and novel approaches to Ebola virus prophylaxis and treatment". BioDrugs 27 (6): 565–83.
Xu L, Sanchez A, Yang Z, Zaki SR, Nabel EG, Nichol ST, Nabel GJ (1998). "Immunization for Ebola virus infection". Nature Medicine 4 (1): 37–42.
Sullivan NJ, Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Xu L, Yang ZY, Roederer M, Koup RA, Jahrling PB, Nabel GJ (2003). "Accelerated vaccination for Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever in non-human primates". Nature 424(6949): 681–684.
Geisbert TW, Daddario-Dicaprio KM, Geisbert JB, Reed DS, Feldmann F, Grolla A, Ströher U, Fritz EA, Hensley LE, Jones SM, Feldmann H (2008). "Vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccines protect nonhuman primates against aerosol challenge with Ebola and Marburg viruses". Vaccine 26 (52): 6894–6900.doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.09.082.
Geisbert TW, Daddario-Dicaprio KM, Lewis MG, Geisbert JB, Grolla A, Leung A, Paragas J, Matthias L, Smith MA, Jones SM, Hensley LE, Feldmann H, Jahrling PB (2008). "Vesicular Stomatitis Virus-Based Ebola Vaccine is Well-Tolerated and Protects Immuno compromised Nonhuman Primates". In Kawaoka, Yoshihiro. PLoS Pathogens 4 (11): e1000225.
Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Leung A, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Hensley LE, Grolla A, Feldmann H (2009)."Single-Injection Vaccine Protects Nonhuman Primates against Infection with Marburg Virus and Three Species of Ebola Virus". Journal of Virology 83 (14): 7296–7304.
Warfield KL, Swenson DL, Olinger GG, Kalina WV, Aman MJ, Bavari S (2007). "Ebola Virus?Like Particle–Based Vaccine Protects Nonhuman Primates against Lethal Ebola Virus Challenge". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 196: S430–S437.
Oplinger, Anne A. (2003-11-18). NIAID Ebola vaccine enters human trial. Bio-Medicine.
"Ebola/Marburg Vaccine Development" (Press release). National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. 2008-09-15.
Martin JE, Sullivan NJ, Enama ME, Gordon IJ, Roederer M, Koup RA, Bailer RT, Chakrabarti BK, Bailey MA, Gomez PL, Andrews CA, Moodie Z, Gu L, Stein JA, Nabel GJ, Graham BS (2006). "A DNA Vaccine for Ebola Virus is Safe and Immunogenic in a Phase I Clinical Trial". Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 13 (11): 1267–1277.
Bush, L (2005). "Crucell and NIH sign Ebola vaccine manufacturing contract". Pharmaceutical Technology29: 28.
Jones SM, Feldmann H, Ströher U, Geisbert JB, Fernando L, Grolla A, Klenk HD, Sullivan NJ, Volchkov VE, Fritz EA, Daddario KM, Hensley LE, Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW (2005). "Live attenuated recombinant vaccine protects nonhuman primates against Ebola and Marburg viruses". Nature Medicine 11 (7): 786–790.
Phoolcharoen W, Dye JM, Kilbourne J, Piensook K, Pratt WD, Arntzen CJ, Chen Q, Mason HS, Herbst-Kralovetz MM (2011). "A nonreplicating subunit vaccine protects mice against lethal Ebola virus challenge".Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108 (51): 20695–700.
"Canadian Press". CBC News (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC)). 20 March 2009.
Tuffs A (2009). "Experimental vaccine may have saved Hamburg scientist from Ebola fever".
Feldmann H, Jones SM, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Geisbert JB, Ströher U, Grolla A, Bray M, Fritz EA, Fernando L, Feldmann F, Hensley LE, Geisbert TW (2007). "Effective Post-Exposure Treatment of Ebola Infection". PLoS Pathogens 3 (1): e2.
Geisbert TW, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Williams KJ, Geisbert JB, Leung A, Feldmann F, Hensley LE, Feldmann H, Jones SM (2008). "Recombinant Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Vector Mediates Postexposure Protection against Sudan Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever in Nonhuman Primates". Journal of Virology 82 (11): 5664–5668.
Bausch DG, Feldmann H, Geisbert TW, Bray M, Sprecher AG, Boumandouki P, Rollin PE, Roth C (2007). "Outbreaks of Filovirus Hemorrhagic Fever: Time to Refocus on the Patient". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 196: S136–S141.
Jeffs B (2006). "A clinical guide to viral haemorrhagic fevers: Ebola, Marburg and Lassa". Tropical Doctor 36(1)
Nkoghé D, Formenty P, Nnégué S, Mvé MT, Hypolite I, Léonard P, Leroy E (2004). "Practical guidelines for the management of Ebola infected patients in the field". Medecine tropicale : revue du Corps de sante colonial 64 (2): 199–204.
World Health Organization (2008-12-27). RD Congo: Fièvre hémorragique à virus Ebola au Kasaï Occidental, Rapport de situation No 1 des 26 & 27 décembre 2008 (in French).
"WHO | Ebola outbreak in Democratic Republic of Congo – update". Who.int. 2012-08-21.
"Ebola outbreak in DRC – Disaster News Network". Disasternews.net. 2012-08-22.
Castillo M (2012). Ebola virus claims 31 lives in Democratic Republic of the Congo. United States: CBS News.
"Guidelines for Evaluation of US Patients Suspected of Having Ebola Virus Disease". CDC. August 1, 2014.
World Health Organization (2014-04-07). "Ebola virus disease, West Africa (Situation as of 7 April 2014) - Guinea".
"Ebola virus disease, West Africa – update 25 July 2014". WHO: Outbreak news. World Health Organization. 2014-07-25.
"Emory Healthcare statement and letter to the Emory Community". Emory Healthcare Statement. Emory University. 2014-08-01.
Botelho G, Brumfield B, Carter CJ (2014-08-02)."Ebola coming to U.S, as Atlanta hospital prepares". CNN.com.
Harf M (2014-08-01). "Medical Evacuations of Two U.S. Citizens From West Africa". Press Statement. U.S. Department of State.
Borio L, Inglesby T, Peters CJ, Schmaljohn AL, Hughes JM, Jahrling PB, Ksiazek T, Johnson KM, Meyerhoff A, O'Toole T, Ascher MS, Bartlett J, Breman JG, Eitzen EM, Hamburg M, Hauer J, Henderson DA, Johnson RT, Kwik G, Layton M, Lillibridge S, Nabel GJ, Osterholm MT, Perl TM, Russell P, Tonat K (2002). "Hemorrhagic fever viruses as biological weapons: medical and public health management". Journal of the American Medical Association 287 (18): 2391–405.
Salvaggio MR, Baddley JW (2004). "Other viral bioweapons: Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever".Dermatologic clinics 22 (3): 291–302,
Rouquet P, Froment JM, Bermejo M, Kilbourn A, Karesh W, Reed P, Kumulungui B, Yaba P, Délicat A, Rollin PE, Leroy EM (Feb 2005). "Wild animal mortality monitoring and human Ebola outbreaks, Gabon and Republic of Congo, 2001–2003" (Free full text).Emerging Infectious Diseases 11 (2): 283–290.
Leroy EM, Rouquet P, Formenty P, Souquière S, Kilbourne A, Froment JM, Bermejo M, Smit S, Karesh W, Swanepoel R, Zaki SR, Rollin PE (2004). "Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central African wildlife". Science 303 (5656): 387–390.Bibcode:2004Sci...303..387L.
Choi, JH; Croyle, MA (2013 Dec). "Emerging targets and novel approaches to Ebola virus prophylaxis and treatment.". BioDrugs : clinical immunotherapeutics, biopharmaceuticals and gene therapy 27 (6): 565–83.
Formenty P, Boesch C, Wyers M, Steiner C, Donati F, Dind F, Walker F, Le Guenno B (1999). "Ebola virus outbreak among wild chimpanzees living in a rain forest of Côte d'Ivoire". The Journal of infectious diseases. 179. Suppl 1 (s1): S120–S126..
Weingartl HM, Nfon C, Kobinger G (2013). "Review of Ebola virus infections in domestic animals". Dev Biol (Basel) 135: 211–8.
Johansen LM, Brannan JM, Delos SE, Shoemaker CJ, Stossel A, Lear C, Hoffstrom BG, Dewald LE, Schornberg KL, Scully C, Lehár J, Hensley LE, White JM, Olinger GG (2013). "FDA-approved selective estrogen receptor modulators inhibit Ebola virus infection". Sci Transl Med 5 (190): 190ra79.doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3005471.
Mupapa K, Massamba M, Kibadi K, Kuvula K, Bwaka A, Kipasa M, Colebunders R, Muyembe-Tamfum JJ (1999). "Treatment of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever with Blood Transfusions from Convalescent Patients". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 179: S18–S23.
Feldmann H, Geisbert TW (2011). "Ebola haemorrhagic fever". The Lancet 377 (9768): 849–862.
Saphire, EO (2013 Nov). "An update on the use of antibodies against the filoviruses.". Immunotherapy 5(11): 1221–33.
"Mystery Ebola virus serum manufactured by San Diego firm". Los Angeles Times. August 4, 2014.
Geisbert TW, Lee AC, Robbins M, Geisbert JB, Honko AN, Sood V, Johnson JC, de Jong S, Tavakoli I, Judge A, Hensley LE, Maclachlan I (2010). "Postexposure protection of non-human primates against a lethal Ebola virus challenge with RNA interference: A proof-of-concept study". The Lancet 375(9729): 1896–1905.
Warren TK, Warfield KL, Wells J, Swenson DL, Donner KS, Van Tongeren SA, Garza NL, Dong L, Mourich DV, Crumley S, Nichols DK, Iversen PL, Bavari S (2010). "Advanced antisense therapies for post exposure protection against lethal filovirus infections". Nature Medicine 16 (9): 991–994.
Helen Branswell (August 3, 2014). "Nancy Writebol, U.S. missionary, didn't get TKM-Ebola drug, Tekmira says". The Canadian Press.
"Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever Signs and Symptoms". CDC. January 28, 2014.
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in West Africa". WHO. Apr 21 2014.
C.M. Fauquet (2005). Virus taxonomy classification and nomenclature of viruses; 8th report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Oxford: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 648.
Gatherer D (2014). "The 2014 Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa". J. Gen. Virol. 95 (Pt 8): 1619–1624.
Hoenen T, Groseth A, Falzarano D, Feldmann H (May 2006). "Ebola virus: unravelling pathogenesis to combat a deadly disease". Trends in Molecular Medicine 12 (5).
"Ebola Virus, Clinical Presentation". Medscape. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
Fisher-Hoch SP, Platt GS, Neild GH, Southee T, Baskerville A, Raymond RT, Lloyd G, Simpson DI (1985). "Pathophysiology of shock and hemorrhage in a fulminating viral infection (Ebola)". J. Infect. Dis. 152 (5): 887–894.
Gatherer, D (2014 Aug). "The 2014 Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa.". The Journal of general virology 95 (Pt 8):
Kiley MP, Bowen ET, Eddy GA, Isaäcson M, Johnson KM, McCormick JB, Murphy FA, Pattyn SR, Peters D, Prozesky OW, Regnery RL, Simpson DI, Slenczka W, Sureau P, van der Groen G, Webb PA, Wulff H (1982). "Filoviridae: A taxonomic home for Marburg and Ebola viruses?". Intervirology 18 (1–2)
Geisbert TW, Jahrling PB (1995). "Differentiation of filoviruses by electron microscopy". Virus research 39(2–3)
Smith, Tara (2005). Ebola (Deadly Diseases and Epidemics). Chelsea House Publications.
Sullivan N, Yang ZY, Nabel GJ (2003). "Ebola Virus Pathogenesis: Implications for Vaccines and Therapies" (Free full text). Journal of Virology 77(18)
Hoenen T, Groseth A, Feldmann H (July 2012)."Current ebola vaccines". Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy 12 (7): 859–72
Choi JH, Croyle MA (December 2013). "Emerging targets and novel approaches to Ebola virus prophylaxis and treatment". BioDrugs 27 (6): 565–83.
Xu L, Sanchez A, Yang Z, Zaki SR, Nabel EG, Nichol ST, Nabel GJ (1998). "Immunization for Ebola virus infection". Nature Medicine 4 (1): 37–42.
Sullivan NJ, Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Xu L, Yang ZY, Roederer M, Koup RA, Jahrling PB, Nabel GJ (2003). "Accelerated vaccination for Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever in non-human primates". Nature 424(6949): 681–684.
Geisbert TW, Daddario-Dicaprio KM, Geisbert JB, Reed DS, Feldmann F, Grolla A, Ströher U, Fritz EA, Hensley LE, Jones SM, Feldmann H (2008). "Vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccines protect nonhuman primates against aerosol challenge with Ebola and Marburg viruses". Vaccine 26 (52): 6894–6900.doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.09.082.
Geisbert TW, Daddario-Dicaprio KM, Lewis MG, Geisbert JB, Grolla A, Leung A, Paragas J, Matthias L, Smith MA, Jones SM, Hensley LE, Feldmann H, Jahrling PB (2008). "Vesicular Stomatitis Virus-Based Ebola Vaccine is Well-Tolerated and Protects Immuno compromised Nonhuman Primates". In Kawaoka, Yoshihiro. PLoS Pathogens 4 (11): e1000225.
Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Leung A, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Hensley LE, Grolla A, Feldmann H (2009)."Single-Injection Vaccine Protects Nonhuman Primates against Infection with Marburg Virus and Three Species of Ebola Virus". Journal of Virology 83 (14): 7296–7304.
Warfield KL, Swenson DL, Olinger GG, Kalina WV, Aman MJ, Bavari S (2007). "Ebola Virus?Like Particle–Based Vaccine Protects Nonhuman Primates against Lethal Ebola Virus Challenge". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 196: S430–S437.
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